A three-dimensional dynamic model of the electrical activity of the heart is presented. The model is based on the single dipole model of the heart and is later related to the body surface potentials through a linear model which accounts for the temporal movements and rotations of the cardiac dipole, together with a realistic ECG noise model. The proposed model is also generalized to maternal and fetal ECG mixtures recorded from the abdomen of pregnant women in single and multiple pregnancies. The applicability of the model for the evaluation of signal processing algorithms is illustrated using independent component analysis. Considering the difficulties and limitations of recording long-term ECG data, especially from pregnant women, the model described in this paper may serve as an effective means of simulation and analysis of a wide range of ECGs, including adults and fetuses.
References
-
O Dössel, Inverse problem of electro- and magnetocardiography: review and recent progress. International Journal of Bioelectromagnetism 2(2) (2000)
-
A van Oosterom, Beyond the dipole; modeling the genesis of the electrocardiogram. 100 Years Einthoven (The Einthoven Foundation, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2002), pp. 7–15
-
Malmivuo JA, Plonsey R (eds.), Bioelectromagnetism, Principles and Applications of Bioelectric and Biomagnetic Fields (Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA, 1995)
-
PP Kanjilal, S Palit, G Saha, Fetal ECG extraction from single-channel maternal ECG using singular value decomposition. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 44(1), 51–59 (1997). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
P Gao, E-C Chang, L Wyse, Blind separation of fetal ECG from single mixture using SVD and ICA. Proceedings of the Joint Conference of the 4th International Conference on Information, Communications and Signal Processing, and the 4th Pacific Rim Conference on Multimedia (ICICS-PCM '03), December 2003, Singapore 3, 1418–1422
-
D Callaerts, W Sansen, J Vandewalle, G Vantrappen, J Janssen, Description of a real-time system to extract the fetal electrocardiogram. Clinical Physics and Physiological Measurement 10(B), 7–10 (1989). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
L De Lathauwer, B De Moor, J Vandewalle, Fetal electrocardiogram extraction by blind source subspace separation. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 47(5), 567–572 (2000). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
F Vrins, C Jutten, M Verleysen, Sensor array and electrode selection for non-invasive fetal electrocardiogram extraction by independent component analysis. in Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Independent Component Analysis and Blind Signal Separation (ICA '04), September 2004, Granada, Spain, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 3195, , ed. by Puntonet CG, Prieto A, pp. 1017–1014
-
B Azzerboni, F La Foresta, N Mammone, FC Morabito, A new approach based on wavelet-ICA algorithms for fetal electrocardiogram extraction. Proceedings of 13th European Symposium on Artificial Neural Networks (ESANN '05), April 2005, Bruges, Belgium, 193–198
-
R Sameni, C Jutten, MB Shamsollahi, What ICA provides for ECG processing: application to noninvasive fetal ECG extraction. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Signal Processing and Information Technology (ISSPIT '06), August 2006, Vancouver, Canada, 656–661
-
Cichocki A, Amari S (eds.), Adaptive Blind Signal and Image Processing (John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 2003)
-
PE McSharry, GD Clifford, L Tarassenko, LA Smith, A dynamical model for generating synthetic electrocardiogram signals. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 50(3), 289–294 (2003). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
PE McSharry, GD Clifford, ECGSYN - a realistic ECG waveform generator (http://www), . physionet.org/physiotools/ecgsyn/ webcite
-
P Bergveld, WJH Meijer, A new technique for the suppression of the MECG. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 28(4), 348–354 (1981). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
WJH Meijer, P Bergveld, The simulation of the abdominal MECG. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 28(4), 354–357 (1981). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
DB Geselowitz, On the theory of the electrocardiogram. Proceedings of the IEEE 77(6), 857–876 (1989). Publisher Full Text
-
Bronzino J (ed.), The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, 2nd edn. (CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla, USA, 2000)
-
E Frank, An accurate, clinically practical system for spatial vectorcardiography. Circulation 13(5), 737–749 (1956). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
GF Fletcher, G Balady, VF Froelicher, LH Hartley, WL Haskell, ML Pollock, Exercise standards: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 91(2), 580–615 (1995). PubMed Abstract
-
GE Dower, HB Machado, JA Osborne, On deriving the electrocardiogram from vectorcardiographic leads. Clinical Cardiology 3(2), 87–95 (1980). PubMed Abstract
-
L Hadžievski, B Bojović, V Vukčević, et al. A novel mobile transtelephonic system with synthesized 12-lead ECG. IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine 8(4), 428–438 (2004). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
L Edenbrandt, O Pahlm, Vectorcardiogram synthesized from a 12-lead ECG: superiority of the inverse Dower matrix. Journal of Electrocardiology 21(4), 361–367 (1988). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
GD Clifford, PE McSharry, A realistic coupled nonlinear artificial ECG, BP, and respiratory signal generator for assessing noise performance of biomedical signal processing algorithms. Fluctuations and Noise in Biological, Biophysical, and Biomedical Systems II, May 2004, Maspalomas, Spain, Proceedings of SPIE 5467, 290–301
-
R Sameni, MB Shamsollahi, C Jutten, M Babaie-Zade, Filtering noisy ECG signals using the extended Kalman filter based on a modified dynamic ECG model. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual International Conference on Computers in Cardiology, September 2005, Lyon, France, 1017–1020
-
GD Clifford, A novel framework for signal representation and source separation: applications to filtering and segmentation of biosignals. Journal of Biological Systems 14(2), 169–183 (2006). Publisher Full Text
-
J Ben-Arie, KR Rao, Nonorthogonal signal representation by Gaussians and Gabor functions. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing 42(6), 402–413 (1995). Publisher Full Text
-
Fetal positions, WebMD (http://www), . webmd.com/content/tools/1/slide_fetal_pos.htm webcite
-
GD Clifford, A Shoeb, PE McSharry, BA Janz, Model-based filtering, compression and classification of the ECG. International Journal of Bioelectromagnetism 7(1), 158–161 (2005)
-
C Bishop, Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition (Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA, 1995)
-
L Weixue, X Ling, Computer simulation of epicardial potentials using a heart-torso model with realistic geometry. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 43(2), 211–217 (1996). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
L Frenkel, M Feder, Recursive expectation-maximization (EM) algorithms for time-varying parameters with applications to multiple target tracking. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing 47(2), 306–320 (1999). Publisher Full Text
-
R Sameni, MB Shamsollahi, C Jutten, GD Clifford, A nonlinear Bayesian filtering framework for ECG denoising to appear in IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
-
GM Friesen, TC Jannett, MA Jadallah, SL Yates, SR Quint, HT Nagle, A comparison of the noise sensitivity of nine QRS detection algorithms. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 37(1), 85–98 (1990). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
G Moody, W Muldrow, R Mark, Noise stress test for arrhythmia detectors. Proceedings of Annual International Conference on Computers in Cardiology, 1984, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, 381–384
-
X Hu, V Nenov, A single-lead ECG enhancement algorithm using a regularized data-driven filter. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 53(2), 347–351 (2006). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
Gelb A (ed.), Applied Optimal Estimation (MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, USA, 1974)
-
MP Tarvainen, SD Georgiadis, PO Ranta-Aho, PA Karjalainen, Time-varying analysis of heart rate variability signals with a Kalman smoother algorithm. Physiological Measurement 27(3), 225–239 (2006). PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
-
G Moody, W Muldrow, R Mark, The MIT-BIH noise stress test database (http://www), . physionet.org/physiobank/database/nstdb/ webcite
-
A Härmä, Frequency-warped autoregressive modeling and filtering, Doctoral thesis
-
The MIT-BIH PTB diagnosis database (http://www), . physionet.org/physiobank/database/ptbdb/ webcite
-
R Bousseljot, D Kreiseler, A Schnabel, Nutzung der EKG-signaldatenbank CARDIODAT der PTB über das internet. Biomedizinische Technik 40(1), S317–S318 (1995). Publisher Full Text
-
D Kreiseler, R Bousseljot, Automatisierte EKG-auswertung mit hilfe der EKG-signaldatenbank CARDIODAT der PTB. Biomedizinische Technik 40(1), S319–S320 (1995). Publisher Full Text
-
B De Moor, Database for the identification of systems (DaISy) (http://homes), . esat.kuleuven.be/~smc/daisy/ webcite
-
MJO Taylor, MJ Smith, M Thomas, et al. Non-invasive fetal electrocardiography in singleton and multiple pregnancies. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 110(7), 668–678 (2003). Publisher Full Text
-
J-F Cardoso, Blind source separation and independent component analysis (http://www), . tsi.enst.fr/~cardoso/guidesepsou.html webcite
-
R Sameni, MB Shamsollahi, C Jutten, Filtering electrocardiogram signals using the extended Kalman filter. Proceedings of the 27th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS '05), September 2005, Shanghai, China, 5639–5642
-
EJ Gumbel, Statistics of Extremes (Columbia University Press, New York, NY, USA, 1958)
-
GH Golub, CF van Loan, Matrix Computations, 3rd edn. (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md, USA, 1996)