Accountability system Referring to task explicitness the coaches' under study showed an implicit and generalist profile when they transmit information in task presentation. This could be confirmed by the emphasis on situation (53%) in task explicitness. These results are comparable to those of Supaporn et al., 2003, a study applied in a middle school physical education department, in which the authors verified that teachers use vague and incomplete instructional tasks, and that teachers' statements were usually implicit. Similarly, studying a gymnastic training setting, Rosado et al., 2008 verified that the outcome was the most used component of task explicitness, followed by situation, which confirms the tendency of coaches in young training setting to provide general information during task presentation. Moreover, the combinations that integrated outcome and performance (criteria-product and criteria-form, respectively) were used only in 17.6% of cases. A similar result was found by Mesquita et al., 2008 in a youth soccer training setting where the information assumed an implicit profile and the use of combinations of criteria-product and criteria-form was substantially low. Doyle and Carter, 1984 suggested that task ambiguity is a factor in task completion, and so it might be expected that effective teachers or coaches would increase the higher level combinations to make tasks more explicit. As Silverman et al., 1995 argues, when task ambiguity is reduced by using great explicitness, task completion and adherence increases and, consequently, students receive more practice and learning is likely to increase. Nonetheless, at different levels of practice players will have a different understanding of the task goals (Hodges and Franks, 2002; Magill, 2000), and thus it will request different explicitness. This study showed that U-14 coaches were more predisposed to provide more detailed explanations to clarify the tasks at hand (used more combinations). Contrarily, U-18 coaches stressed more on criteria-product possibly because at this skill level coaches can often overlook skill form and focus chiefly on skill result. In exigency type, the highest value was on no exigency in task presentation (73.3%), though, during practice, accountability was based mainly on the degree of quality of performance (48%). The incongruence with the exigency type set in task presentation and during task observed in our study could be explained because the tasks are continually changing as both players and coaches, are continuously making appropriate adjustments and modifications in response to each other (Jones, 1992). Instructional-task modifications and negotiations seemed to be influenced by the instructional format and the learners' skill level and take place when learners change the stated task to meet their own abilities and/or interests without asking (Jones, 1992). This is probably increased when coaches did not put any kind of exigency in tasks presentation. In fact, since accountability for performance of instructional tasks was loose and mostly implicit, learners could "act out" often in many ways, and follow their social agendas with peers or think that any practice is acceptable within the reward structure (Doyle, 1983). Considering the age groups, coaches presented a similar profile. Indeed, even in the oldest age group (U-18), coaches did not put significantly more of any kind of exigency to accomplish the task during practice, probably, because players are familiarized and see these tasks as routine. However, instructional task modifications occur frequently when learners are not held accountable for task completion (Silverman et al., 1995) which is the case when coaches do not communicate any kind of exigency. The present study demonstrated that coaches largely fail to monitor players' task accomplishment, as the main reaction was no reaction at all (84.6%). This general pattern is difficult to explain as it is at odds with coaches' concern for technical information conveyed during practice, but it reflected the high rates of general information observed among coaches' instruction. As Tinning and Siedentop, 1985 argue the application of contrived consequences depends on some form of monitoring and supervising provided by coaches during practice. Indeed, supervisor monitoring was a fundamental part of the accountability system, insofar as to be accountable to a person, implies to please this person by providing the type of response that is presumed to satisfy that person (Roch and MacNall, 2007). In contrast, if athletes are not held accountable, they will tend to complete tasks at a less than optimal level (Doyle, 1983). Moreover, coaches from this study reacted to players' task unaccomplishment almost two times higher with punishment than with encouragement. This affective behaviour profile is substantially different from British top-level soccer coaches (Potrac et al., 2002; 2007) who benefit substantially from the use of encouragement. Black and Weiss, 1992 suggest that effective coaches try to cultivate a more positive environment for their players than less effective counterparts. In order to create a positive learning atmosphere for their athletes, it is crucial that coaches cultivate positive rather than negative interactions (Lacy and Darst, 1985; Potrac et al., 2007). Compared to U-18 coaches, U-14 coaches applied significantly more encouragement, which corresponds to the motivational needs of young players, as they are still in the initial stages of development. As Roch and MacNall, 2007 argue motivation is a drive to do something and may form the basis for feelings of accountability. Jones, 1992 added that explicitness of task statements, appropriate coach supervision and players' motivation to practice are factors that can contribute to higher task accomplishment. Instructional approach Regarding instructional task, coaches were heavily reliant on informing and extending tasks and often failed to use applying and refining tasks. In a general way our results replicate Son, 1989 and Jones' (1992) studies applied to physical education classes. In those studies, teachers make preferential use of informing tasks, followed by extending, applying, and finally with little use of refining tasks. Physical education teachers with a higher level of expertise were seen to apply more extending tasks (Hastie and Vlaisavljevic, 1999). Also in this study coaches who were not expert gave great importance to these type of tasks. Indeed, extension tasks require to either reduce or increase the complexity and difficulty of the content, and to sequence experiences in progressive order (Rink, 1993, 1996); such tasks are designed to provide players opportunities for working at an appropriate level of difficulty (Mesquita et al., 2008). Oddly coaches made little use of refining tasks which are particularly important in the improvement of performance quality (Hastie and Vlaisavljevic, 1999). Some studies (Pellet and Harrison, 1995; Rikard, 1992) put in evidence the power of refining tasks in the learning achievement mainly in the earlier stages of learning. However even U-14 coaches did not use refining tasks more often than U-18 coaches, making an apparent similar profile in both groups. Technical information presented the highest values (43%) followed by general instruction (34.3%). The prevalence of technical information combined with informing tasks seems to reflect a molecular approach, focused on practicing fundamental skills. Moreover coaches from U-14 group conveyed significantly more technical information than their U-18 counterparts. Even if the specificity of the Volleyball game demands a minimum of technical competence in order to play, the instructional focus on molecular approach in the early stages of learning (Mesquita et al., 2005) does not encourage the development of tactical decision-making (Bianco, 2006). Relationship between accountability system and instructional approach Extension tasks were the instructional tasks more related with the accountability system and the nature of information. However, the correlations verified with the variable without exigency in task presentation and with quality of performance during practice orient, once more, to the lack of explicitness in task presentation mitigated by some concern on correct execution during practice. Additionally, both extending and applying tasks showed correlation with situation, in relation to task explicitness, which could represent a generalist and superficial coach's profile, even when manipulation of the task difficulty is required (Rink, 1993). Once the players begin the task without knowing what the coach specifically wants, it is probable that they solve ambiguity according to their interests and change the main goal of the task. Moreover, even if extension tasks demand specified criteria of performance and a close monitoring, coaches usually adopted an inconsequential position of no reaction towards task being unaccomplished. The lack of accountability criteria and the failure to monitor task accomplishment apparent in the present study could only be speculated. They may reflect either a lack of detailed knowledge about volleyball contents, inadequate instructional competence, or even beliefs about how to coach and how players learn. Further research needs to address issues of coaches' knowledge and conceptions related to volleyball instruction. Concerning the relationship between the nature of information and the accountability system, it was found that technical content information established a positive correlation with performance quality and a negative correlation with without exigency. In addition, the moderate and negative correlation between tactical information and encouragement suggests a concern by coaches in encouraging athletes, preferentially when the nature of information is technical. Once again, these findings highlight a coach's instructional profile orientated to a molecular approach where the coach not only gives more attention to technical content but also supports learning process related to this content with more specific information and encouragement. In general, the relationships between the instructional variables and the accountability systems variables were merely of moderate level, which suggests the interest of considering other pedagogical variables in further research in order to get a more comprehensive view of the complexity of the youth coaches' instructional process. | |